Negotiating Religiosity in a Secular Society: A Study of Indonesian Muslim Female Migrant Workers in Hong Kong

Main Article Content

Imam Subchi
Asep Saepudin Jahar
Maila D. H. Rahiem
Asrorun Ni’am Sholeh

Abstract

This study examined how Indonesian Muslim female migrant workers in Hong Kong, the majority of whom work in the domestic sector, negotiate their religiosity in a secular society. As a method of investigation, qualitative exploratory research was used. Observation and in-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect data with eight Indonesian Muslim female workers in Hong Kong. The findings show that: 1) despite workplace restrictions, these workers adhered to their religious rites; 2) they utilized the most viable solutions to enable them to conduct their job obligations that were incompatible with their religion; 3) they established halaqas [religious study groups] in several mosques throughout Hong Kong and met regularly; and 4) the migrant workers gained strength from their faith, while the religious study groups greatly assisted them in overcoming and resolving life’s challenges. The researchers concluded that while it is critical for many workers to live according to their religion, many employers are unaware of their employees’ religion and religious values. There should be better dialogue and agreement on how workers and employers can negotiate their rights and obligations. In response to the study’s findings, several recommendations are made.

Article Details

How to Cite
Subchi, I., Jahar, A. S. ., Rahiem, M. D. H. ., & Sholeh, A. N. . (2021). Negotiating Religiosity in a Secular Society: A Study of Indonesian Muslim Female Migrant Workers in Hong Kong. Journal of Population and Social Studies [JPSS], 30, 147–169. Retrieved from https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jpss/article/view/256710
Section
Research Articles
Author Biography

Maila D. H. Rahiem, Faculty of Education, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Indonesia

Corresponding author

References

• Adams, R. H., Jr., & Cuecuecha, A. (2013). The impact of remittances on investment and poverty in Ghana. World Development, 50, 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.04.009
• Ahmed, A. M. (2000). Islamic pillars: possible adverse effects on diabetic patients. Practical Diabetes International, 17(3), 96–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1528-252X(200005)17:3%3C96::AID-PDI58%3E3.0.CO;2-Y
• Allmark, P., & Wahyudi, I. (2019). Travel, sexuality and female Indonesian domestic migrant workers in Hong Kong. Continuum, 33(5), 630–642. https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2019.1652042
• Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5(4), 432-443. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0021212
• Azam, M. (2015). The role of migrant workers remittances in fostering economic growth: The four Asian developing countries’ experiences. International Journal of Social Economics, 42(8), 690–705. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-11-2013-0255
• Bank of Indonesia. (2021). Statistik Ekonomi Dan Keuangan Indonesia - Februari 2021 [Indonesian Economic and Financial Statistics February 2021]. [dataset]. https://www.bi.go.id/id/statistik/ekonomi-keuangan/seki/Pages/SEKI-FEBRUARI-2021.aspx
• Benson, P. L., Roehlkepartain, E. C., & Rude, S. P. (2003). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Toward a field of inquiry. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0703_12
• Bergan, A., & McConatha, J. T. (2001). Religiosity and life satisfaction. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 24(3), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1300/J016v24n03_02
• Beta, A. R. (2014). Hijabers: How young urban Muslim women redefine themselves in Indonesia. International Communication Gazette, 76(4–5), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048514524103
• BMP2MI. (2020). Data Penempatan dan Perlindungan Pekerja Migran Indonesia (PMI) Tahun 2019 [Data on the Placement and Protection of Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) Year 2019]. https://bp2mi.go.id/uploads/statistik/images/data_19-02-2020_Laporan_Pengolahan_Data_BNP2TKI____2019(2).pdf
• BMP2MI. (2021). Data Penempatan dan Perlindungan PMI Periode Februari Tahun 2021 [Data on the Placement and Protection of PMI for February 2021]. https://bp2mi.go.id/uploads/statistik/images/data_31-03-2021_LAPORAN_PENGOLAHAN_DATA_PMI_BULAN_FEBRUARI_TAHUN_2021_-_edit_19032021.pdf
• Bowen, J. R. (1989). Salat in Indonesia: The social meanings of an Islamic ritual. Man, 24(4), 600–619. https://doi.org/10.2307/2804290
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
• Chung, R. Y. N., Liao, T. F., & Fong, E. (2020). Data collection for migrant live-in domestic workers: A three-stage cluster sampling method. American Behavioral Scientist, 64(6), 709–721. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764220910223
• Colbran, N. (2010). Realities and challenges in realising freedom of religion or belief in Indonesia. The International Journal of Human Rights, 14(5), 678–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642980903155166
• Colledge, R. (1999). Islamic beliefs and the Five Pillars of Islam. In R. Colledge (Ed.), Mastering World Religions (pp. 122–127). Macmillan Publishers Limited. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14329-0_15
• Constable, N. (2010). Telling tales of migrant workers in Hong Kong: Transformations of faith, life scripts, and activism. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 11(3–4), 311–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/14442213.2010.513399
• Dewi, K. H. (2012). Javanese women and Islam: Identity formation since the twentieth century. Southeast Asian Studies, 1(1), 109-140. https://doi.org/10.20495/seas.1.1_109
• Ebaugh, H. (2003). Religion and the new immigrants. In M. Dillon (Ed.), Handbook of the Sociology of Religion (pp. 225-239). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807961.017
• Ellison, C. G. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32(1), 80–99. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2007763/
• El-Solh, C. F., & Mabro, J. (2020). Introduction: Islam and Muslim Women. In C. F. El-Solh & J. Mabro (Eds.), Muslim women’s choices: Religious belief and social reality (pp. 1–32). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003135166
• Flynn, P. (1999). The unique qualities of Indonesian Islam. Australian Defence Force Journal, 135, 9–12. https://search.informit.org/doi/epdf/10.3316/ielapa.991009972
• Fouskas, T. (2019). (Un)maid in Greece: Repercussions of precarious, low-status work on family and community networks of solidarity of migrant Filipina live-in domestic workers and race discrimination at work. In J. Vassilopoulou, J. Brabet, & V. Showunmi (Eds.), Race Discrimination and Management of Ethnic Diversity and Migration at Work (Vol. 6, pp. 225–250). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2051-233320190000006011
• Geertz, C. (1964). The religion of Java. The Free Press.
• Gibson, K., Law, L., & McKay, D. (2001). Beyond heroes and victims: Filipina contract migrants, economic activism and class transformations. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 3(3), 365–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616740110078185
• Global Migration Group. (2017). Handbook for Improving the Production and Use of Migration Data for Development. Global Knowledge Partnership for Migration and Development. https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2017-11/Handbook%20for%20Improving%20the%20Production%20and%20Use%20of%20Migration%20Data%20for%20Development.pdf
• Glock, C. Y., & Stark, R. (1970). Religion and society in tension: a publication from the research program in the Sociology of Religion Survey Research Center, University of California, Berkeley. Chicago Rand McNally.
• Graff, H. J., Christensen, U., Poulsen, I., & Egerod, I. (2018). Patient perspectives on navigating the field of traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: a qualitative thematic analysis. Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(8), 926–934. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1280542
• Green, O., & Ayalon, L. (2018). Violations of workers’ rights and exposure to work-related abuse of live-in migrant and live-out local home care workers – a preliminary study: implications for health policy and practice. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research, 7, 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13584-018-0224-1
• Hamid, W. (2015). Feelings of home amongst Tamil migrant workers in Singapore’s Little India. Pacific Affairs, 88(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.5509/20158815
• Hanifah, I. (2020). Peran dan tanggung jawab negara dalam perlindungan hukum tenaga kerja Indonesia yang bermasalah di luar negeri [The roles and responsibilities of the state in protecting the laws of Indonesian workers with problems abroad]. DE LEGA LATA: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum, 5(1), 10–23. https://doi.org/10.30596/dll.v5i1.3303
• Hassan, R. (2007). On being religious: Patterns of religious commitment in Muslim Societies. The Muslim World, 97(3), 437-478. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.2007.00190.x
• Henkel, H. (2005). ‘Between belief and unbelief lies the performance of Salāt’: Meaning and efficacy of a Muslim ritual. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 11(3), 487–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2005.00247.x
• Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., Jr., McCullough, M. E., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., & Zinnbauer, B. J. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30(1), 51–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00119
• Hirschman, C. (2004). The role of religion in the origins and adaptation of immigrant groups in the United States. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1206–1233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00233.x
• Hitchcock, J. (2005). The 5 pillars of Islam. Verbum, 2(2), 43–50. https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/verbum/vol2/iss2/9
• Ho, W. Y. (2015). The emerging visibility of Islam through the powerless: Indonesian Muslim domestic helpers in Hong Kong. Asian Anthropology, 14(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/1683478X.2015.1025593
• International Labour Organization. (2015). ILO global estimates on migrant workers: Results and methodology: Special focus on migrant domestic workers. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_436343.pdf
• International Labour Organization. (2018). ILO global estimates on international migrant workers: results and methodology (Reference Year 2017) (2nd ed.). https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_652001.pdf
• Joseph, S., & Castan, M. (2013). The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases, materials, and commentary. Oxford University Press.
• Kalu, F. A., & Bwalya, J. C. (2017). What makes qualitative research good research? An exploratory analysis of critical elements. International Journal of Social Science Research, 5(2), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v5i2.10711
• Koole, S. L., Meijer, M., & Remmers, C. (2017). Religious rituals as tools for adaptive self-regulation. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 7(3), 250–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2016.1156562
• Kozleski, E. B. (2017). The uses of qualitative research: Powerful methods to inform evidence-based practice in education. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 42(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796916683710
• Lau, P. W. L., Cheng, J. G. Y., Chow, D. L. Y., Ungvari, G. S., & Leung, C. M. (2009). Acute psychiatric disorders in foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong: A pilot study. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55(6), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764008098294
• Martinez, C., Cummings, M. E., & Vaaler, P. M. (2015). Economic informality and the venture funding impact of migrant remittances to developing countries. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.10.004
• Mas’udah, S. (2020). Remittances and lifestyle changes among Indonesian overseas migrant workers’ families in their hometowns. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 21, 649-665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-019-00676-x
• Maxwell, J. A. (2009). Designing a qualitative study. In L. Bickman, & D. J. Rog (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods (2nd Edition, pp. 214–253). SAGE Publications. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483348858.n7
• Mazumdar, S., & Mazumdar, S. (1999). Ritual lives of Muslim women: Agency in everyday life. Journal of Ritual Studies, 13(2), 58–70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44368562
• Mazumdar, S., & Mazumdar, S. (2004). The articulation of religion in domestic space: Rituals in the immigrant Muslim home. Journal of Ritual Studies, 18(2), 74–85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44368696
• Min, P. G., & Kim, J. H. (Eds.). (2001). Religions in Asian America: Building faith communities (Vol. 8). AltaMira Press.
• Nakonz, J., & Shik, A. W. Y. (2009). And all your problems are gone: religious coping strategies among Philippine migrant workers in Hong Kong. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 12(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670802105252
• Nathan, M. (2014). The wider economic impacts of high-skilled migrants: a survey of the literature for receiving countries. IZA Journal of Migration, 3, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9039-3-4
• NIȚĂ, G. (2018). Remittances from migrant workers and their importance in economic growth. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 8(1), 161–166. http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARAFMS/v8-i1/4041
• Noor, N. M., & Shaker, M. N. (2017). Perceived workplace discrimination, coping and psychological distress among unskilled Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 57, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.01.004
• Oluwafemi, A., & Ayandibu, A. O. (2014). Impact of remittances on development in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 5(3), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766634.2014.11885635
• Oppong, S. H. (2013). Religion and identity. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 3(6), 10–16. https://aijcrnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_6_June_2013/2.pdf
• Parreñas, R. S. (2000). Migrant Filipina domestic workers and the international division of reproductive labor. Gender & Society, 14(4), 560–580. https://www.jstor.org/stable/190302
• Peek, L. (2005). Becoming Muslim: The development of a religious identity. Sociology of Religion, 66(3), 215–242. https://doi.org/10.2307/4153097
• Quandt, S. A., Arcury, T. A., Early, J., Tapia, J., & Davis, J. D. (2004). Household food security among migrant and seasonal Latino farmworkers in North Carolina. Public Health Reports, 119(6), 568–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phr.2004.09.006
• Rahiem, M. D. H. (2018). Faith and disaster resilience: What can Islamic education teach children to help prepare them for a disaster? TARBIYA: Journal of Education in Muslim Society, 5(2), 178–192. https://doi.org/10.15408/tjems.v5i2.9964
• Rahiem, M. D. H., Abdullah, N. S. M., & Krauss, S. E. (2017). Religious interpretations and psychological recovery from the Aceh 2004 tsunami: The promise of heaven, healing the trauma. In R. Djalante, M. Garschagen, F. Thomalla, & R. Shaw (Eds.). Disaster Risk Reduction in Indonesia. Disaster Risk Reduction (Methods, Approaches and Practices (pp. 495–514). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54466-3_20
• Rahiem, M. D. H., & Rahim, H. (2021). The sultan and the soup: A Javanese cultural response to COVID-19. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(1), 43–65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/602
• Rayaprol, A. (1997). Negotiating identities: Women in the Indian diaspora. Oxford University Press.
• Razin, A., Sadka, E., & Swagel, P. (2002). Tax burden and migration: a political economy theory and evidence. Journal of Public Economics, 85(2), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00091-3
• Ridzwan, W. M. F. W. M., Mahmood, N. H., Zakaria, N. A., & Ali, E. A. (2011). Salat and brainwave signal analysis. Jurnal Teknologi, 54(1), 181-192. https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v54.809
• Rodriguez, R. M. (2002). Migrant heroes: Nationalism, citizenship and the politics of Filipino migrant labor. Citizenship Studies, 6(3), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/1362102022000011658
• Saunders, L. F. (2016). Reason and emotion, not reason or emotion in moral judgment. Philosophical Explorations, 19(3), 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13869795.2016.1212395
• Schlosser, L. Z., Ali, S. R., Ackerman, S. R., & Dewey, J. J. H. (2009). Religion, ethnicity, culture, way of life: Jews, Muslims, and multicultural counseling. Counseling and Values, 54(1), 48–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.2009.tb00004.x
• Sechzer, J. A. (2004). “Islam and woman: Where tradition meets modernity”: History and interpretations of Islamic women’s status. Sex Roles, 51, 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000046610.16101.e0
• Setyawati, D. (2013). Assets or commodities? Comparing regulations of placement and protection of migrant workers in Indonesia and the Philippines. Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 6(2), 264–280. https://doi.org/10.14764/10.ASEAS-6.2-3
• Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22(2), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-2004-22201
• Smith-Hefner, N. J. (2007). Javanese women and the veil in post-Soeharto Indonesia. The Journal of Asian Studies, 66(2), 389–420. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911807000575
• Stevens, M., Hussein, S., & Manthorpe, J. (2012). Experiences of racism and discrimination among migrant care workers in England: Findings from a mixed-methods research project. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35(2), 259–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.574714
• Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge University Press.
• Syed, I. B. (2003). Spiritual medicine in the history of Islamic medicine. Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2(4), 45–49. http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/08.pdf
• Taha, N., Siegmann, K. A., & Messkoub, M. (2015). How portable is social security for migrant workers? A review of the literature. International Social Security Review, 68(1), 95–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/issr.12061
• Tehseen Jawaid, S., & Raza, S. A. (2012). Workers’ remittances and economic growth in China and Korea: an empirical analysis. Journal of Chinese Economic and Foreign Trade Studies, 5(3), 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1108/17544401211263946
• United Nations. (2011). Impact of remittances on poverty in developing countries. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditctncd20108_en.pdf
• van Ginneken, W. (2013). Social protection for migrant workers: National and international policy challenges. European Journal of Social Security, 15(2), 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271301500206
• Winchester, D. (2008). Embodying the faith: Religious practice and the making of a Muslim moral habitus. Social Forces, 86(4), 1753–1780. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20430827
• The World Bank. (2017). Indonesia’s global workers: Juggling opportunities & risks. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/946351511861382947/pdf/121691-Indonesias-Global-Workers-Juggling-Opportunities-Risks.pdf
• Ye, G., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, L., Xie, H., Fu, Y., & Zuo, J. (2019). Impact of migrant workers on total factor productivity in Chinese