Investigation of Early Marriage: A Phenomenology Study in the Society of Bawean Island, Indonesia
Article Sidebar
Published:
Jul 26, 2021
Keywords:
Early marriage fornication Indonesia interpretation matchmaking
Main Article Content
Abstract
The research aimed to interpret the perceptions of early marriage, the union of two people in which one or both are under 18 years of age, through a phenomenological approach. The analysis was performed using observation techniques along with participation in in-depth interviews supported with an inductive approach of documentation analysis. The results showed that the society in Bawean Island, Indonesia, perceived the need for early marriage of 15-16 years old girls as matchmaking, avoidance of the social sanction of fornication and out-of-wedlock pregnancy, and as an economical solution for parents to shift responsibility. The results further showed that matchmaking and the avoidance of fornication are significant motivators for early marriage. Also, it was found that early marriages caused adverse effects on the wife, husband, and children. The effects are related to cases of pregnancy complication for the wife and psychological stress for the husband. The effect on children born of the early marriage is mainly neonatal infant mortality. The solutions offered to support the population development target and decrease early marriage numbers are to improve access to health facilities and information for women, and overcome cultural and social norms by discussing the impacts of early marriage with social and religious figures and stakeholders. The research can be used by the National Population and Family Planning Board (Indonesia) to decrease the number of early marriages in society.
Article Details
How to Cite
Susilo, S., Istiawati, N. F., Aliman, M., & Alghani, M. Z. (2021). Investigation of Early Marriage: A Phenomenology Study in the Society of Bawean Island, Indonesia. Journal of Population and Social Studies [JPSS], 29(-), 544–562. Retrieved from https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jpss/article/view/254038
Section
Research Articles
References
• Adegboyega, L. O. (2019). Influence of social media on sexual behaviour of youth in Kwara State, Nigeria: Implications for counselling practice. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth, 11(1), 85–103. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjfy29408
• Afandi, E., & Ardiansyah. (2019). Adjustment of marriage on woman in the manner of matchmaking culture. Proceedings of the 4th ASEAN Conference on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities (ACPCH 2018), 254-257. https://doi.org/10.2991/acpch-18.2019.63
• Ahammed, B., Kabir, M. R., Abedin, M. M., Ali, M., & Islam, M. A. (2019). Determinants of different birth intervals of ever married women: Evidence from Bangladesh. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 7(3), 450-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2019.01.011
• Arimurti, I., & Nurmala, I. (2017). Analisis pengetahuan perempuan terhadap perilaku melakukan pernikahan usia dini di kecamatan Wonosari kabupaten Bondowoso [The analysis of woman perception to early marriage in Wonosari regency Bondowoso]. The Indonesian Journal of Public Health, 12(2), 249–261. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/ijph.v12i2.2017.249-262
• Arthur, M., Earle, A., Raub, A., Vincent, I., Atabay, E., Latz, I., Kranz, G., Nandi, A., & Heymann, J. (2018). Child marriage laws around the world: Minimum marriage age, legal exceptions, and gender disparities. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 39(1), 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2017.1375786
• Asare, B. Y. A., Baafi, D., Dwumfour-Asare, B., & Adam, A. R. (2019). Factors associated with adolescent pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality of Ghana. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences, 10, 87–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijans.2019.02.001
• Ashton, S., McDonald, K., & Kirkman, M. (2019). Pornography and women’s sexual pleasure: Accounts from young women in Australia. Feminism & Psychology, 29(3), 409–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353519833410
• Azzopardi, P. S., Hearps, S. J. C., Francis, K. L., Kennedy, E. C., Mokdad, A. H., Kassebaum, N. J., Lim, S., Irvine, C. M. S., Vos, T., Brown, A. D., Dogra, S., Kinner, S. A., Kaoma, N. S., Naguib, M., Reavley, N. J., Requejo, J., Santelli, J. S., Sawyer, S. M., Skirbekk, V., … Patton, G. C. (2019). Progress in adolescent health and wellbeing: Tracking 12 headline indicators for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016. The Lancet, 339(10176), 1101-1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32427-9
• Barber, J. S., Yarger, J. E., & Gatny, H. H. (2015). Black-White differences in attitudes related to pregnancy among young women. Demography, 52(3), 751–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0391-4
• Beattie, T. S., Prakash, R., Mazzuca, A., Kelly, L., Javalkar, P., Raghavendra, T., Ramanaik, S., Collumbien, M., Moses, S., Heise, L., Isac, S., & Watts, C. (2019). Prevalence and correlates of psychological distress among 13–14-year-old adolescent girls in North Karnataka, South India: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 19, 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6355-z
• Birech, J. (2013). Child marriage: A cultural health phenomenon. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(17), 54–60. http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_17_September_2013/12.pdf
• Blum, R. W., Li, M., Pasha, O., Rao, C., & Natiq, K. (2019). Coming of age in the shadow of the Taliban: Education, child marriage, and the future of Afghanistan from the perspectives of adolescents and their parents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(3), 370-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.014
• Central Statistics Agency of Gresik Regency. (2018). Kecamatan Sangkapura dalam angka 2018 [Sangkapura District in Figures 2018] https://gresikkab.bps.go.id/publication/2018/09/26/939783ab6cd02a2f44936a9e/kecamatan-sangkapura-dalam-angka-2018.html
• Central Statistics Agency of Gresik Regency. (2020). Kecamatan Sangkapura dalam angka 2020 [Sangkapura District in Figures 2020] https://gresikkab.bps.go.id/publication/2020/09/28/449d9d2f7d73703e193fc03a/kecamatan-sangkapura-dalam-angka-2020.html
• Clyde, T. L., Hawkins, A. J., & Willoughby, B. J. (2020). Revising premarital relationship interventions for the next generation. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 46(1), 149-164 https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12378.
• Coyne, S. M., Ward, L. M., Kroff, S. L., Davis, E. J., Holmgren, H. G., Jensen, A. C., Erickson, S. E., & Essig, L. E. (2019). Contributions of mainstream sexual media exposure to sexual attitudes, perceived peer norms, and sexual behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 430-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.016
• Delprato, M., & Akyeampong, K. (2017). The effect of early marriage timing on women’s and children’s health in sub-Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia. Annals of Global Health, 83(3-4), 557-567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2017.10.005
• Duraku, Z. H., Jemini-Gashi, L., & Toçi, E. (2020). Perceptions of early marriage, educational aspirations, and career goals among Kosovar adolescents. Marriage & Family Review, 56(6), 513-534. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1728006
• Efevbera, Y., Bhabha, J., Farmer, P., & Fink, G. (2019). Girl child marriage, socioeconomic status, and undernutrition: Evidence from 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Medicine, 17, 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1279-8
• Fitriana, D., Amalia, R. B., & Fardana, N. A. (2021). A qualitative study: The phenomena of child marriage in urban areas of Surabaya city reviewed from comprehension of reproductive health. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 12(1), 260-265. https://doi.org/10.37506/ijphrd.v12i1.13859
• Hammersley, M. (2019). Alfred Schutz and ethnomethodology: Origins and departures. History of the Human Sciences, 32(2), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695119830304
• Havaei, M., Salehi, L., Akbari-Kamrani, M., Rahimzadeh, M., & Esmaelzadeh-Saeieh, S. (2019). Effect of education based on protection motivation theory on adolescents’ reproductive health self-care: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 20180195. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2018-0195
• Igba, D. I., Igba, C. E., Nwafor, C. E., Elom, C., & Mgboro, C. (2018). Teenage pregnancy and girl-child education. International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences, 13(3), 237–248. https://www.ripublication.com/ijaes18/ijaesv13n3_01.pdf
• Indraswari, R. R., & Yuhan, R. J. (2017). Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penundaan kelahiran anak pertama di wilayah perdesaan Indonesia: Analisis data SDKI 2012 [The postponement factors of first child in rural area Indonesia based on SKDI analysis in 2012]. Jurnal Kependudukan Indonesia, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.14203/jki.v12i1.274
• IPU & WHO. (2016). Child, early and forced marriage legislation in 37 Asia-Pacific countries. WHO. https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/gender_rights/cefm-asia-pacific/en/
• Jarnkvist, K. (2019). Childbearing and marriage: Investigating the importance of context for meaning-making of first-time marriage. Marriage & Family Review, 55(1), 38–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2018.1458002
• Judiasih, S. D., Rubiati, B., Yuanitasari, D., Salim, E. F., & Safira, L. (2020). Efforts to eradicate child marriage practices in Indonesia: Towards sustainable development goals. Journal of International Women's Studies, 21(6), 135-149. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol21/iss6/8
• Kenny, L., Koshin, H., Sulaiman, M., & Cislaghi, B. (2019). Adolescent-led marriage in Somaliland and Putland: A surprising interaction of agency and social norms. Journal of Adolescence, 72, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.02.009
• Kirova, A., & Emme, M. (2006). Using photography as a means of phenomenological seeing: “Doing phenomenology” with immigrant children. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, 6(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/20797222.2006.11433934
• Koski, A., & Heymann, J. (2018). Child marriage in the United States: How common is the practice, and which children are at greatest risk? Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 50(2), 59–65. https://doi.org/10.1363/psrh.12055
• Laksono, A. D., Wulandari, R. D., & Matahari, R. (2021). Does education level matter in women’s risk of early marriage?: Case study in rural area in Indonesia. Medico-legal Update, 21(1), 24-28. https://doi.org/10.37506/mlu.v21i1.2273
• Lang, K., & Weinstein, R. (2015). The consequences of teenage childbearing before Roe vs. Wade. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(4), 169-197. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20130482
• Luk, C. Y. (2019). A Human Rights-Based Approach to Teenage Pregnancy Prevention in China. In D. Akella (Eds.), Socio-Cultural Influences on Teenage Pregnancy and Contemporary Prevention Measures (pp. 95-116). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6108-8.ch006
• Malhotra, A., Warner, A., McGonagle, A., & Lee-Rife, S. (2011). Solutions to End Child Marriage: What the Evidence Shows. ICRW. https://www.icrw.org/publications/solutions-to-end-child-marriage/
• Mazzuca, A., Nagarchi, D., Ramanaik, S., Raghavendra, T., Javalkar, P., Rotti, S., Bhattacharjee, P., Isac, S., Cohen, A., & Beattie, T. (2019). Developing a mental health measurement strategy to capture psychological problems among lower caste adolescent girls in rural, South India. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56(1) 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461518789540
• McNarry, G., Allen-Collinson, J., & Evans, A. B. (2019). Reflexivity and bracketing in sociological phenomenological research: Researching the competitive swimming lifeworld. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(1), 138–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2018.1506498
• Mehra, D., Sarkar, A., Sreenath, P., Behera, J., & Mehra, S. (2018). Effectiveness of a community-based intervention to delay early marriage, early pregnancy and improve school retention among adolescents in India. BMC Public Health, 18, 732. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5586-3
• Mekonnen, Y., Kassa, K., & Ayalew, M. (2019). Prevalence, causes and consequences of divorce in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia. African Journal of Social Work, 19(1), 91–98. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/184252
• Mukhuti, S., Mukhuti., A., & Chakraborty, S. (2019). Development and growth of women empowerment of selected indicators in West Bengal-An Empirical Study. International Journal of Advances in Management and Economics, 8(1), 113–131. http://www.managementjournal.info/index.php/IJAME/article/view/556
• Nguyen, H., Shiu, C., & Farber, N. (2016). Prevalence and factors associated with teen pregnancy in Vietnam: Results from two national surveys. Societies, 6(2), 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc6020017
• Ondiba, H. A., & Matsui, K. (2019). Social attributes and factors influencing entrepreneurial behaviors among rural women in Kakamega County, Kenya. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-018-0123-5
• Pakasi, D. T. (2019). Child marriage in Indonesia: Practices, politics, and struggles. MASYARAKAT: Jurnal Sosiologi, 24(1), iii–viii. https://doi.org/10.7454/mjs.v24i1.10956
• Raggl, A., & Schratz, M. (2004). Using visuals to release pupils’ voices: emotional pathways into enhancing thinking and reflecting on learning. In C. Pole (Ed.), Seeing is Believing? Approaches to Visual Research (Vol. 7, pp. 147–162). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1042-3192(04)07009-0
• Rahayu, W. D., & Wahyuni, H. (2020). The Influence of early marriage on monetary poverty in Indonesia. Journal of Indonesian Economy and Business, 35(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.22146/jieb.42405
• Raj, A., Salazar, M., Jackson, E. C., Wyss, N., McClendon, K. A., Khanna, A., Belayneh, Y., & McDougal, L. (2019). Students and brides: A qualitative analysis of the relationship between girls’ education and early marriage in Ethiopia and India. BMC Public Health, 19, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6340-6
• Rasmussen, B., Maharaj, N., Sheehan, P., & Friedman, H. S. (2019). Evaluating the employment benefits of education and targeted interventions to reduce child marriage. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), S16-S24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.03.022.
• Rumble, L., Peterman, A., Irdiana, N., Triyana, M., & Minnick, E. (2018). An empirical exploration of female child marriage determinants in Indonesia. BMC Public Health, 18, 407. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5313-0
• Sari, L. T. (2019). Perbedaan Penggunaan Facebook dan Instagram terhadap Perilaku Seks Bebas Remaja Usia 15-17 Tahun [Differences in the use of Facebook and Instagram on free sex behavior for adolescents aged 15-17]. Jurnal Ners dan Kebidanan, 6(1), 93-100. https://doi.org/10.26699/jnk.v6i1.ART.p093-100
• Shah, S. S. H., Wasan, A. A., & Wassan, K. (2018). Sociological analysis of maternal mortality rate and early marriages of girls in rural areas of Hyderabad division, Sindh. Journal of Grassroot, 52(2), 31–40. https://sujo-old.usindh.edu.pk/index.php/Grassroots/article/view/4851
• Smith, J. A. (2017). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Getting at lived experience. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 303–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262622
• Smith, W., Turan, J. M., White, K., Stringer, K. L., Helova, A., Simpson, T., & Cockrill, K. (2016). Social norms and stigma regarding unintended pregnancy and pregnancy decisions: A qualitative study of young women in Alabama. Perspectives on Sexual Reproductive Health, 48(2), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.1363/48e9016
• Standart Diagnosis Keperawatan Indonesia (SDKI). (2018). Data pernikahan dini di Indonesia [Early marriage data in Indonesia]. Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/lib/uploads/list/74d38-buku-pai-2018.pdfStark, L. (2016). Transactional sex, early marriage, and parent–child relations in a Tanzanian slum. Ethnologia Europaea, 46(1), 76–90. https://doi.org/10.16995/ee.1178
• Susilo, S. (2016). Remittance of phenomenology perspective: A Study of Indonesian migrant worker (TKI) in Tulungagung, Indonesia. The Social Sciences, 11(19), 4730-4733. https://doi.org/10.36478/sscience.2016.4730.4733
• Tada, M. (2019). Time as sociology’s basic concept: A perspective from Alfred Schutz’s phenomenological sociology and Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory. Time & Society, 28(3), 995–1012. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X18754458
• UNFPA & IPPF. (2006). Ending Child Marriage: A Guide for Global Policy Action. International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). https://www.unfpa.org/publications/ending-child-marriage-guide-global-policy-action
• UNICEF. (2005). Early marriage: A harmful traditional practice. UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/resources/early-marriage-a-traditional-harmful-practice-a-statistical-exploration/
• UNICEF. (2016). Child marriage in Indonesia: Progress on pause. UNICEF. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/documents/500/UNICEF-Indonesia-Child-Marriage-Research-Brief-1.pdf
• vom Lehn, D. (2018). Phenomenology-based ethnography for management studies and organizational analysis. British Journal of Management, 30(1), 188-202. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12309
• vom Lehn, D., & Heath, C. (2021). Embedding impact in research: Addressing the interactional production of workplace activities. British Journal of Management, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12468
• Wahhaj, Z. (2018). An economic model of early marriage. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 152, 147–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.06.001
• Wahi, A., Zaleski, K. L., Lampe, J., Bevan, P., & Koski, A. (2019). The lived experience of child marriage in the United States. Social Work in Public Health, 34(3), 201-213. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2019.1575312
• Widyastari, D. A., Isarabhakdi, P., & Shaluhiyah, Z. (2020). Intergenerational patterns of early marriage and childbearing in rural Central Java, Indonesia. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 28(3), 250 - 264. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jpss/article/view/215387
• Wodon, Q., Nguyen, M. C., & Tsimpo, C. (2016). Child marriage, education, and agency in Uganda. Feminist Economics, 22(1), 54–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1102020
• Wodon, Q., Tavares, P., Fiala, O., Nestour, A.L., & Wise, L. (2017). Ending child marriage: Child marriage laws and their limitations. The World Bank. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/134161519943385981-0050022017/original/WBL2017ChildMarriageLaws.pdf
• Wright, P. J., & Vangeel, L. (2019). Pornography, permissiveness, and sex differences: An evaluation of social learning and evolutionary explanations. Personality and Individual Differences, 143, 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PAID.2019.02.019
• Yildirim, F., Abukan, B., & Oztas, D. (2019). From Early Marriage to Adolescent Pregnancy in Turkey: A Review Study in Socio-Cultural Context. In D. Akella (Ed.), Socio-Cultural Influences on Teenage Pregnancy and Contemporary Prevention Measures (pp. 77-94). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6108-8.ch005
• Young-Petersen, B., & Willoughby, B. J. (2017). The Influence of Pornography on Romantic Relationships of Emerging Adults. In M. Wright (Ed.), Identity, Sexuality, and Relationships among Emerging Adults in the Digital Age (pp. 178-202). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-1856-3.ch012
• Afandi, E., & Ardiansyah. (2019). Adjustment of marriage on woman in the manner of matchmaking culture. Proceedings of the 4th ASEAN Conference on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities (ACPCH 2018), 254-257. https://doi.org/10.2991/acpch-18.2019.63
• Ahammed, B., Kabir, M. R., Abedin, M. M., Ali, M., & Islam, M. A. (2019). Determinants of different birth intervals of ever married women: Evidence from Bangladesh. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 7(3), 450-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2019.01.011
• Arimurti, I., & Nurmala, I. (2017). Analisis pengetahuan perempuan terhadap perilaku melakukan pernikahan usia dini di kecamatan Wonosari kabupaten Bondowoso [The analysis of woman perception to early marriage in Wonosari regency Bondowoso]. The Indonesian Journal of Public Health, 12(2), 249–261. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/ijph.v12i2.2017.249-262
• Arthur, M., Earle, A., Raub, A., Vincent, I., Atabay, E., Latz, I., Kranz, G., Nandi, A., & Heymann, J. (2018). Child marriage laws around the world: Minimum marriage age, legal exceptions, and gender disparities. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 39(1), 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2017.1375786
• Asare, B. Y. A., Baafi, D., Dwumfour-Asare, B., & Adam, A. R. (2019). Factors associated with adolescent pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality of Ghana. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences, 10, 87–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijans.2019.02.001
• Ashton, S., McDonald, K., & Kirkman, M. (2019). Pornography and women’s sexual pleasure: Accounts from young women in Australia. Feminism & Psychology, 29(3), 409–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353519833410
• Azzopardi, P. S., Hearps, S. J. C., Francis, K. L., Kennedy, E. C., Mokdad, A. H., Kassebaum, N. J., Lim, S., Irvine, C. M. S., Vos, T., Brown, A. D., Dogra, S., Kinner, S. A., Kaoma, N. S., Naguib, M., Reavley, N. J., Requejo, J., Santelli, J. S., Sawyer, S. M., Skirbekk, V., … Patton, G. C. (2019). Progress in adolescent health and wellbeing: Tracking 12 headline indicators for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016. The Lancet, 339(10176), 1101-1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32427-9
• Barber, J. S., Yarger, J. E., & Gatny, H. H. (2015). Black-White differences in attitudes related to pregnancy among young women. Demography, 52(3), 751–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0391-4
• Beattie, T. S., Prakash, R., Mazzuca, A., Kelly, L., Javalkar, P., Raghavendra, T., Ramanaik, S., Collumbien, M., Moses, S., Heise, L., Isac, S., & Watts, C. (2019). Prevalence and correlates of psychological distress among 13–14-year-old adolescent girls in North Karnataka, South India: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 19, 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6355-z
• Birech, J. (2013). Child marriage: A cultural health phenomenon. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(17), 54–60. http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_17_September_2013/12.pdf
• Blum, R. W., Li, M., Pasha, O., Rao, C., & Natiq, K. (2019). Coming of age in the shadow of the Taliban: Education, child marriage, and the future of Afghanistan from the perspectives of adolescents and their parents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(3), 370-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.014
• Central Statistics Agency of Gresik Regency. (2018). Kecamatan Sangkapura dalam angka 2018 [Sangkapura District in Figures 2018] https://gresikkab.bps.go.id/publication/2018/09/26/939783ab6cd02a2f44936a9e/kecamatan-sangkapura-dalam-angka-2018.html
• Central Statistics Agency of Gresik Regency. (2020). Kecamatan Sangkapura dalam angka 2020 [Sangkapura District in Figures 2020] https://gresikkab.bps.go.id/publication/2020/09/28/449d9d2f7d73703e193fc03a/kecamatan-sangkapura-dalam-angka-2020.html
• Clyde, T. L., Hawkins, A. J., & Willoughby, B. J. (2020). Revising premarital relationship interventions for the next generation. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 46(1), 149-164 https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12378.
• Coyne, S. M., Ward, L. M., Kroff, S. L., Davis, E. J., Holmgren, H. G., Jensen, A. C., Erickson, S. E., & Essig, L. E. (2019). Contributions of mainstream sexual media exposure to sexual attitudes, perceived peer norms, and sexual behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 430-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.016
• Delprato, M., & Akyeampong, K. (2017). The effect of early marriage timing on women’s and children’s health in sub-Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia. Annals of Global Health, 83(3-4), 557-567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2017.10.005
• Duraku, Z. H., Jemini-Gashi, L., & Toçi, E. (2020). Perceptions of early marriage, educational aspirations, and career goals among Kosovar adolescents. Marriage & Family Review, 56(6), 513-534. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1728006
• Efevbera, Y., Bhabha, J., Farmer, P., & Fink, G. (2019). Girl child marriage, socioeconomic status, and undernutrition: Evidence from 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Medicine, 17, 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1279-8
• Fitriana, D., Amalia, R. B., & Fardana, N. A. (2021). A qualitative study: The phenomena of child marriage in urban areas of Surabaya city reviewed from comprehension of reproductive health. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 12(1), 260-265. https://doi.org/10.37506/ijphrd.v12i1.13859
• Hammersley, M. (2019). Alfred Schutz and ethnomethodology: Origins and departures. History of the Human Sciences, 32(2), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695119830304
• Havaei, M., Salehi, L., Akbari-Kamrani, M., Rahimzadeh, M., & Esmaelzadeh-Saeieh, S. (2019). Effect of education based on protection motivation theory on adolescents’ reproductive health self-care: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 20180195. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2018-0195
• Igba, D. I., Igba, C. E., Nwafor, C. E., Elom, C., & Mgboro, C. (2018). Teenage pregnancy and girl-child education. International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences, 13(3), 237–248. https://www.ripublication.com/ijaes18/ijaesv13n3_01.pdf
• Indraswari, R. R., & Yuhan, R. J. (2017). Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penundaan kelahiran anak pertama di wilayah perdesaan Indonesia: Analisis data SDKI 2012 [The postponement factors of first child in rural area Indonesia based on SKDI analysis in 2012]. Jurnal Kependudukan Indonesia, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.14203/jki.v12i1.274
• IPU & WHO. (2016). Child, early and forced marriage legislation in 37 Asia-Pacific countries. WHO. https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/gender_rights/cefm-asia-pacific/en/
• Jarnkvist, K. (2019). Childbearing and marriage: Investigating the importance of context for meaning-making of first-time marriage. Marriage & Family Review, 55(1), 38–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2018.1458002
• Judiasih, S. D., Rubiati, B., Yuanitasari, D., Salim, E. F., & Safira, L. (2020). Efforts to eradicate child marriage practices in Indonesia: Towards sustainable development goals. Journal of International Women's Studies, 21(6), 135-149. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol21/iss6/8
• Kenny, L., Koshin, H., Sulaiman, M., & Cislaghi, B. (2019). Adolescent-led marriage in Somaliland and Putland: A surprising interaction of agency and social norms. Journal of Adolescence, 72, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.02.009
• Kirova, A., & Emme, M. (2006). Using photography as a means of phenomenological seeing: “Doing phenomenology” with immigrant children. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, 6(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/20797222.2006.11433934
• Koski, A., & Heymann, J. (2018). Child marriage in the United States: How common is the practice, and which children are at greatest risk? Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 50(2), 59–65. https://doi.org/10.1363/psrh.12055
• Laksono, A. D., Wulandari, R. D., & Matahari, R. (2021). Does education level matter in women’s risk of early marriage?: Case study in rural area in Indonesia. Medico-legal Update, 21(1), 24-28. https://doi.org/10.37506/mlu.v21i1.2273
• Lang, K., & Weinstein, R. (2015). The consequences of teenage childbearing before Roe vs. Wade. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(4), 169-197. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20130482
• Luk, C. Y. (2019). A Human Rights-Based Approach to Teenage Pregnancy Prevention in China. In D. Akella (Eds.), Socio-Cultural Influences on Teenage Pregnancy and Contemporary Prevention Measures (pp. 95-116). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6108-8.ch006
• Malhotra, A., Warner, A., McGonagle, A., & Lee-Rife, S. (2011). Solutions to End Child Marriage: What the Evidence Shows. ICRW. https://www.icrw.org/publications/solutions-to-end-child-marriage/
• Mazzuca, A., Nagarchi, D., Ramanaik, S., Raghavendra, T., Javalkar, P., Rotti, S., Bhattacharjee, P., Isac, S., Cohen, A., & Beattie, T. (2019). Developing a mental health measurement strategy to capture psychological problems among lower caste adolescent girls in rural, South India. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56(1) 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461518789540
• McNarry, G., Allen-Collinson, J., & Evans, A. B. (2019). Reflexivity and bracketing in sociological phenomenological research: Researching the competitive swimming lifeworld. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(1), 138–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2018.1506498
• Mehra, D., Sarkar, A., Sreenath, P., Behera, J., & Mehra, S. (2018). Effectiveness of a community-based intervention to delay early marriage, early pregnancy and improve school retention among adolescents in India. BMC Public Health, 18, 732. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5586-3
• Mekonnen, Y., Kassa, K., & Ayalew, M. (2019). Prevalence, causes and consequences of divorce in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia. African Journal of Social Work, 19(1), 91–98. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/184252
• Mukhuti, S., Mukhuti., A., & Chakraborty, S. (2019). Development and growth of women empowerment of selected indicators in West Bengal-An Empirical Study. International Journal of Advances in Management and Economics, 8(1), 113–131. http://www.managementjournal.info/index.php/IJAME/article/view/556
• Nguyen, H., Shiu, C., & Farber, N. (2016). Prevalence and factors associated with teen pregnancy in Vietnam: Results from two national surveys. Societies, 6(2), 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc6020017
• Ondiba, H. A., & Matsui, K. (2019). Social attributes and factors influencing entrepreneurial behaviors among rural women in Kakamega County, Kenya. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-018-0123-5
• Pakasi, D. T. (2019). Child marriage in Indonesia: Practices, politics, and struggles. MASYARAKAT: Jurnal Sosiologi, 24(1), iii–viii. https://doi.org/10.7454/mjs.v24i1.10956
• Raggl, A., & Schratz, M. (2004). Using visuals to release pupils’ voices: emotional pathways into enhancing thinking and reflecting on learning. In C. Pole (Ed.), Seeing is Believing? Approaches to Visual Research (Vol. 7, pp. 147–162). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1042-3192(04)07009-0
• Rahayu, W. D., & Wahyuni, H. (2020). The Influence of early marriage on monetary poverty in Indonesia. Journal of Indonesian Economy and Business, 35(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.22146/jieb.42405
• Raj, A., Salazar, M., Jackson, E. C., Wyss, N., McClendon, K. A., Khanna, A., Belayneh, Y., & McDougal, L. (2019). Students and brides: A qualitative analysis of the relationship between girls’ education and early marriage in Ethiopia and India. BMC Public Health, 19, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6340-6
• Rasmussen, B., Maharaj, N., Sheehan, P., & Friedman, H. S. (2019). Evaluating the employment benefits of education and targeted interventions to reduce child marriage. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), S16-S24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.03.022.
• Rumble, L., Peterman, A., Irdiana, N., Triyana, M., & Minnick, E. (2018). An empirical exploration of female child marriage determinants in Indonesia. BMC Public Health, 18, 407. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5313-0
• Sari, L. T. (2019). Perbedaan Penggunaan Facebook dan Instagram terhadap Perilaku Seks Bebas Remaja Usia 15-17 Tahun [Differences in the use of Facebook and Instagram on free sex behavior for adolescents aged 15-17]. Jurnal Ners dan Kebidanan, 6(1), 93-100. https://doi.org/10.26699/jnk.v6i1.ART.p093-100
• Shah, S. S. H., Wasan, A. A., & Wassan, K. (2018). Sociological analysis of maternal mortality rate and early marriages of girls in rural areas of Hyderabad division, Sindh. Journal of Grassroot, 52(2), 31–40. https://sujo-old.usindh.edu.pk/index.php/Grassroots/article/view/4851
• Smith, J. A. (2017). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Getting at lived experience. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 303–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262622
• Smith, W., Turan, J. M., White, K., Stringer, K. L., Helova, A., Simpson, T., & Cockrill, K. (2016). Social norms and stigma regarding unintended pregnancy and pregnancy decisions: A qualitative study of young women in Alabama. Perspectives on Sexual Reproductive Health, 48(2), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.1363/48e9016
• Standart Diagnosis Keperawatan Indonesia (SDKI). (2018). Data pernikahan dini di Indonesia [Early marriage data in Indonesia]. Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/lib/uploads/list/74d38-buku-pai-2018.pdfStark, L. (2016). Transactional sex, early marriage, and parent–child relations in a Tanzanian slum. Ethnologia Europaea, 46(1), 76–90. https://doi.org/10.16995/ee.1178
• Susilo, S. (2016). Remittance of phenomenology perspective: A Study of Indonesian migrant worker (TKI) in Tulungagung, Indonesia. The Social Sciences, 11(19), 4730-4733. https://doi.org/10.36478/sscience.2016.4730.4733
• Tada, M. (2019). Time as sociology’s basic concept: A perspective from Alfred Schutz’s phenomenological sociology and Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory. Time & Society, 28(3), 995–1012. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X18754458
• UNFPA & IPPF. (2006). Ending Child Marriage: A Guide for Global Policy Action. International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). https://www.unfpa.org/publications/ending-child-marriage-guide-global-policy-action
• UNICEF. (2005). Early marriage: A harmful traditional practice. UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/resources/early-marriage-a-traditional-harmful-practice-a-statistical-exploration/
• UNICEF. (2016). Child marriage in Indonesia: Progress on pause. UNICEF. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/documents/500/UNICEF-Indonesia-Child-Marriage-Research-Brief-1.pdf
• vom Lehn, D. (2018). Phenomenology-based ethnography for management studies and organizational analysis. British Journal of Management, 30(1), 188-202. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12309
• vom Lehn, D., & Heath, C. (2021). Embedding impact in research: Addressing the interactional production of workplace activities. British Journal of Management, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12468
• Wahhaj, Z. (2018). An economic model of early marriage. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 152, 147–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.06.001
• Wahi, A., Zaleski, K. L., Lampe, J., Bevan, P., & Koski, A. (2019). The lived experience of child marriage in the United States. Social Work in Public Health, 34(3), 201-213. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2019.1575312
• Widyastari, D. A., Isarabhakdi, P., & Shaluhiyah, Z. (2020). Intergenerational patterns of early marriage and childbearing in rural Central Java, Indonesia. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 28(3), 250 - 264. https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jpss/article/view/215387
• Wodon, Q., Nguyen, M. C., & Tsimpo, C. (2016). Child marriage, education, and agency in Uganda. Feminist Economics, 22(1), 54–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1102020
• Wodon, Q., Tavares, P., Fiala, O., Nestour, A.L., & Wise, L. (2017). Ending child marriage: Child marriage laws and their limitations. The World Bank. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/134161519943385981-0050022017/original/WBL2017ChildMarriageLaws.pdf
• Wright, P. J., & Vangeel, L. (2019). Pornography, permissiveness, and sex differences: An evaluation of social learning and evolutionary explanations. Personality and Individual Differences, 143, 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PAID.2019.02.019
• Yildirim, F., Abukan, B., & Oztas, D. (2019). From Early Marriage to Adolescent Pregnancy in Turkey: A Review Study in Socio-Cultural Context. In D. Akella (Ed.), Socio-Cultural Influences on Teenage Pregnancy and Contemporary Prevention Measures (pp. 77-94). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6108-8.ch005
• Young-Petersen, B., & Willoughby, B. J. (2017). The Influence of Pornography on Romantic Relationships of Emerging Adults. In M. Wright (Ed.), Identity, Sexuality, and Relationships among Emerging Adults in the Digital Age (pp. 178-202). IGI Global. http://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-1856-3.ch012