China’s Relations with the Liao, Xixia, and Jin: A Reflection of Diplomatic Flexibility during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 C.E.)

Abstract

This article argues that diplomacy of imperial China was not only carried out under the tribute system with Sinocentric assumptions, but also practiced in multiple ways and traditions, reflecting its adaptation to changes in the external environment. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 C.E.), Chinese diplomacy, under threat from the Liao, Xixia and Jin, was implemented with flexibility and pragmatism which resulted in Song survival for three centuries.